2. Clauses

2.1. 1. Independent Clauses

These are complete scientific statements that can stand alone.

  • Biology: The cell membrane controls the movement of substances into and out of the cell.

  • Chemistry: Magnesium reacts with hydrochloric acid to produce flammable hydrogen gas.

  • Physics: A kinetic energy increase occurs when an object gains speed.

  • Earth Science: Convection currents in the mantle drive the movement of tectonic plates.

β€”

2.2. 2. Dependent Clauses

These show cause, effect, or conditions. They cannot stand alone (highlighted in bold).

  • Biology: The plant cell remains turgid because the rigid cell wall provides structural support.

  • Chemistry: If the temperature of the solution increases, the rate of the reaction will speed up.

  • Physics: The light ray bends toward the normal as it passes from air into a denser glass block.

  • Earth Science: While the oceanic plate subducts, it begins to melt due to the intense heat of the mantle.

β€”

2.3. 3. Non-finite Clauses

These use β€œ-ing” or β€œto” verbs to pack actions tightly into a sentence (highlighted in bold).

  • Biology: Using a light microscope, the students observed the rectangular structure of the onion cells.

  • Chemistry: The scientist added a catalyst to lower the activation energy of the reaction.

  • Physics: Starting from a stationary position, the trolley accelerated down the inclined plane.

  • Earth Science: Magma rises through the crust, forming new seafloor at the mid-ocean ridge.

β€”

2.4. 1. Relative Clauses

These add technical detail to a specific noun using β€œwhich” or β€œthat” (highlighted in bold).

  • Biology: Mitochondria are the organelles that convert glucose into usable energy for the cell.

  • Chemistry: The precipitate which formed during the reaction settled at the bottom of the beaker.

  • Physics: Friction is a contact force that opposes the relative motion of two surfaces.

  • Earth Science: The Himalayas are a mountain range that formed from the collision of two continental plates.

β€”

2.5. 5. Interrupting Clauses (Embedded)

These drop extra detail or definitions into the middle of a sentence (highlighted in bold).

  • Biology: Specialized cells β€” such as the red blood cell β€” are adapted to perform specific functions.

  • Chemistry: The reaction, once the catalyst was introduced, produced bubbles at a much faster rate.

  • Physics: The total energy of the system β€” assuming no energy is lost as heat β€” remains constant.

  • Earth Science: Transform boundaries, where two plates slide past one another, are often sites of powerful earthquakes.

2.6. 6. Embedded Participle Clauses as Participants ( - ing )

These sentences have a non-finite clause (using -ing ) that acts as the participant (highlighted in bold).

  • Biology: Identifying the organelles was the primary goal of using the microscopic.

  • Chemistry: Heating the solution to 100Β°C was the trigger for the chemical reaction.

  • Physics: Measuring the velocity of the trolley was the main aim of the experiment.

  • Earth Science: Mapping the tectonic boundaries was a critical step in predicting seismic activity.

2.7. 7. Embedded Clauses as Participants (to / because / when)

These sentences use an infinitive ( to … ) or a subordinating conjunction ( because / when ) as the starting participant or subject of the statement (highlighted in bold).

  • Biology: To observe the cell wall was the reason the student adjusted the coarse focus.

  • Chemistry: Because the catalyst was absent was why the reaction rate remained low.

  • Physics: To calculate the total force is the first requirement of the dynamics problem.

  • Earth Science: When the plates collide is the specific moment seismic energy is released.